The research made by Birgin and Baki (2007), The use of Portfolio to Assess Student’s Performance is included in the Turkish Science Education Journal, vol, 4, issue, 2 , September 2007. The authors’ purpose is to introduce portfolio assessment method commonly used in educational contexts recently. They claim that learning approaches have changed and as a result they have affected assessment procedures. As a consequence, an alternative method is needed. Portfolio is then seen as “systematic and purposeful collection of the evidence which reflect the success, performance, and efforts of the students in one or more areas over a period of time” (Birgin & Baki, 2007, p. 78). Throughout the paper, Birgin and Baki (2007) show the different applications and different types of portfolios depending on the purpose and contents. They also explain the advantages of using portfolio assessment methods over the standarized testing as well as they describe the problems and disadvantages of using this alternative assessment method. In order to use portfolio as an assessment tool effectively, teachers need “to determine the purpose, plan its items ... and explain their assessement criteria clearly” (Birgin & Barki, 2007, p. 86).
Reference
Birgin, O. & Baki, A. (2007). The use of portfolio to assess student’s performance. Turkish Science Education Journal, 4(2), 75-87.
miércoles, 24 de febrero de 2010
Acknowledging sources properly
Academic writing implies not only the prodution of a piece of writing but also intensively researching on others’ published work in order to support hypothesis, explain theories or justify certain ideas. This research demands on the part of the academic writer to cite properly the documents or sources consulted to avoid plagiarism. In-text citacions and the reference list are the two means used to acknowledge sources.
Topics developed by the academic writer, the audience addresed to and the field in which the paper is included will be subject to a specified manual that provides guidelines and rules on how to recognize the sources. For instance, the manual APA (American Psychological Association) used for Psychology and other Social Sciences is the framework within which the following paper has been analysed.
In Ogan-Bekiroglu and Gunay's (2008) paper, Portfolio assessment, it can be seen the format of APA style for citing references. They follow the rules established to cite articles from magazines and books but they do not place the reference list on a new page separated from the text of the paper though. The label References is not centered and no double space is provided. The reference list entries are alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work and all lines after the first line of each entry are indented one-half inch from the left margin.
Following documentation styles is an important aspect to consider when acknowledging sources. There are special rules and formats depending on the discipline. Different manuals have been specially designed to guide the writers on how to acknowledge sources. These guidelines provide uniformity and tidiness. Therefore, they must be carefully dealt with so as not to mix styles or omit any detail.
References
Ogan-Bekiroglu, F. & Gunay, A. (2008). Physics students’perceptions on their journey through portfolio assessment.
Topics developed by the academic writer, the audience addresed to and the field in which the paper is included will be subject to a specified manual that provides guidelines and rules on how to recognize the sources. For instance, the manual APA (American Psychological Association) used for Psychology and other Social Sciences is the framework within which the following paper has been analysed.
In Ogan-Bekiroglu and Gunay's (2008) paper, Portfolio assessment, it can be seen the format of APA style for citing references. They follow the rules established to cite articles from magazines and books but they do not place the reference list on a new page separated from the text of the paper though. The label References is not centered and no double space is provided. The reference list entries are alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work and all lines after the first line of each entry are indented one-half inch from the left margin.
Following documentation styles is an important aspect to consider when acknowledging sources. There are special rules and formats depending on the discipline. Different manuals have been specially designed to guide the writers on how to acknowledge sources. These guidelines provide uniformity and tidiness. Therefore, they must be carefully dealt with so as not to mix styles or omit any detail.
References
Ogan-Bekiroglu, F. & Gunay, A. (2008). Physics students’perceptions on their journey through portfolio assessment.
Experiential Learning E-Portfolios:Promoting Connections between Academic and Workplace Learning Utilizing Information and Communications Technologies
Brown, J. (2009). Experiential Learning E-Portfolios: Promoting Connections between Academic and Workplace Learning Utilizing Information and Communication Technologies. Miami: Barry University, School of Adult and Continuing Education.
Brown's (2009) paper examines the effectiveness of developing e-portfolios in two case studies to promote connections between academic and workplace learning. In Maloney’s (2007) words “the e-portfolio allows learners to trace the development of their thinking and learning over time and to show their competencies to the university and employers” (as cited in Brown, 2009, p. 2). The author briefly refers to learning approaches through the time till she reaches the one that supports her research. According to Brown (2009), the developmental constructivist work of Kegan (1994) and Mezinow’s (1996) transforamtive theory on learning allow learners to reflect upon their learning process, to change their behaviour, to construct and (re)discover meaning in such a way their complex cognitive ways increase. Relevant sections in the paper emphasized the idea of validating work environments as venues for higher level knowledge acquisition. These sections are: Workplace Learning; E-portfolios and learning; and The Transformation of Experience to Learning. After analysing the results obtained, Brown (2009) concludes that workplace can serve as another way of learning and e-portfolios can prove to be a connection between academic and professional competencies.
Reference
Brown, J. (2009). Experiential learning e-portfolios: promoting connections between academic and workplace learning utilizing information and communication technologies. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Conference Workplace Learning Special Interest Group paper session, April 16th, 2009.
Brown's (2009) paper examines the effectiveness of developing e-portfolios in two case studies to promote connections between academic and workplace learning. In Maloney’s (2007) words “the e-portfolio allows learners to trace the development of their thinking and learning over time and to show their competencies to the university and employers” (as cited in Brown, 2009, p. 2). The author briefly refers to learning approaches through the time till she reaches the one that supports her research. According to Brown (2009), the developmental constructivist work of Kegan (1994) and Mezinow’s (1996) transforamtive theory on learning allow learners to reflect upon their learning process, to change their behaviour, to construct and (re)discover meaning in such a way their complex cognitive ways increase. Relevant sections in the paper emphasized the idea of validating work environments as venues for higher level knowledge acquisition. These sections are: Workplace Learning; E-portfolios and learning; and The Transformation of Experience to Learning. After analysing the results obtained, Brown (2009) concludes that workplace can serve as another way of learning and e-portfolios can prove to be a connection between academic and professional competencies.
Reference
Brown, J. (2009). Experiential learning e-portfolios: promoting connections between academic and workplace learning utilizing information and communication technologies. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Conference Workplace Learning Special Interest Group paper session, April 16th, 2009.
Digital Portfolios: training in documenting school learning for the professional world
Purpose: To provide a general overview of why and how to implement digital portfolios as an educational tool with students from Camino Nuevo High School (CNHS).
Thesis: Through creating and maintaining digital portfolios, CNHS students synthesize and present their academic work at the same time they show their competence to master technological resources.
Audience: high school teachers, students at higher level education
1. The digital portfolios (DPs) process at CNHS.
A. Training in basic web design for professional world.
B. Developing skills for self-presentation.
2. DPs in CNHS as an educational tool and a unifying aspect of school culture.
A. Building and maintaining a website by all students.
1. Reflecting upon growth through academic work.
B. Presenting DPs at the end of tenth grade as a graduation requirement.
3. Portfolios’ contents.
A. Sections corresponding to each school year.
1. Assignments demostrating skills and concepts developed.
2. Reflections about the content and skills.
3. Quality of students’ effort and product.
4. Much classroom work posted on DPs for grading.
A. Students’ access to classmates’ DPs.
1. Peer assessments as regular classroom practice.
5. Steps to implement DPs.
A. In-house teacher training for basic web design.
B. Hard-working staff to develop approaches and standards for DPs.
C. Digital Portfolio Handbook on the DP website page.
1. Technical guidance.
2. Rubrics.
3. Guidelines for presentations at the end of tenth grade.
6. “Positive impact [of using DPs] on student achievement across the curriculum” (Cramer, 2009, p. 4)
A. Parents’ and members’ of the community access to students’ work.
B. Students’ chances to share work with possible employers or internship providers.
Reference
Cramer, M. (2009). Digital portfolios: documenting student growth. Horace Summer 2009, 25(1), 1-4. Data file. Retrieved December, 19th 2009 from http://www.essentialschools.org/cs/cespr/view/ces_res/620
Thesis: Through creating and maintaining digital portfolios, CNHS students synthesize and present their academic work at the same time they show their competence to master technological resources.
Audience: high school teachers, students at higher level education
1. The digital portfolios (DPs) process at CNHS.
A. Training in basic web design for professional world.
B. Developing skills for self-presentation.
2. DPs in CNHS as an educational tool and a unifying aspect of school culture.
A. Building and maintaining a website by all students.
1. Reflecting upon growth through academic work.
B. Presenting DPs at the end of tenth grade as a graduation requirement.
3. Portfolios’ contents.
A. Sections corresponding to each school year.
1. Assignments demostrating skills and concepts developed.
2. Reflections about the content and skills.
3. Quality of students’ effort and product.
4. Much classroom work posted on DPs for grading.
A. Students’ access to classmates’ DPs.
1. Peer assessments as regular classroom practice.
5. Steps to implement DPs.
A. In-house teacher training for basic web design.
B. Hard-working staff to develop approaches and standards for DPs.
C. Digital Portfolio Handbook on the DP website page.
1. Technical guidance.
2. Rubrics.
3. Guidelines for presentations at the end of tenth grade.
6. “Positive impact [of using DPs] on student achievement across the curriculum” (Cramer, 2009, p. 4)
A. Parents’ and members’ of the community access to students’ work.
B. Students’ chances to share work with possible employers or internship providers.
Reference
Cramer, M. (2009). Digital portfolios: documenting student growth. Horace Summer 2009, 25(1), 1-4. Data file. Retrieved December, 19th 2009 from http://www.essentialschools.org/cs/cespr/view/ces_res/620
martes, 23 de febrero de 2010
A healthy life in your hands and feet
Nowadays more and more people are interested in taking alternative medical treatments or complementing the traditional ones with some up-to-date techniques based on ancestral practices. Oribe (2007), in his work Reflexología: La salud a tus pies presents a careful description about the treatment and self-therapy. Particularly important are the theory and the classification he includes in the first and last parts of the book specifically. The simple language used added to precise illustrations and a series of exercises clearly described, make of this book an interesting resource to take into account when we decide to take care of our health. The techniques that have been scientifically proved offer to anyone a different, cheap and enjoyable self-treatment. Oribe (2007) admits “...[T]raditional medicine, sometimes and more often, nowadays, utilises alternative therapies as a complement for its own treatments” (p.29).
Reference
Oribe, C. A. (2007). Reflexología: La salud a tus pies. Cdad.de Buenos Aires, Arg: Ediciones LEA S.A.
Reference
Oribe, C. A. (2007). Reflexología: La salud a tus pies. Cdad.de Buenos Aires, Arg: Ediciones LEA S.A.
The Critical Incident Technique
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin,
51-4. Retrieved December, 10th 2009,
from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
In his work, Flanagan (1954) describes the development of a method called Critical Incident Technique (CIT) as well as he explains its main principles and its present conditions. There are also some cases studied and some samples forms for different uses. “The critical inicident technique consists of a set of procedures for collecting direct observations of human behaviour...” (Flanagan 1954, The critical incident technique para. 2 ). By means of this method practical problems can be dealt with in different fields. However, as the author concludes “critical incidents represent only raw data and do not automatically provide solutions to problems” (Flanagan, 1954, Summary and Conclusions, para. 3). As regards organization, it can be said that the work includes two parts. The first one deals with how and when the technique started. Sections belonging to this part are: “Background and early developments”, “Developmental studies at the American Institute for Research” and “Studies carried out at the University of Pittsburgh”. The second part is about the description of the technique in itself. Sections referring to it are: 1.The procedure in its present form. 1.1. General aims 1.2. Plans and specifications 1.3. Collecting the data 1.4. Analysing the data 1.5. Interpreting and reporting 2. Uses of the Critical Incident Technique 3. Summary and conclusions.
51-4. Retrieved December, 10th 2009,
from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
In his work, Flanagan (1954) describes the development of a method called Critical Incident Technique (CIT) as well as he explains its main principles and its present conditions. There are also some cases studied and some samples forms for different uses. “The critical inicident technique consists of a set of procedures for collecting direct observations of human behaviour...” (Flanagan 1954, The critical incident technique para. 2 ). By means of this method practical problems can be dealt with in different fields. However, as the author concludes “critical incidents represent only raw data and do not automatically provide solutions to problems” (Flanagan, 1954, Summary and Conclusions, para. 3). As regards organization, it can be said that the work includes two parts. The first one deals with how and when the technique started. Sections belonging to this part are: “Background and early developments”, “Developmental studies at the American Institute for Research” and “Studies carried out at the University of Pittsburgh”. The second part is about the description of the technique in itself. Sections referring to it are: 1.The procedure in its present form. 1.1. General aims 1.2. Plans and specifications 1.3. Collecting the data 1.4. Analysing the data 1.5. Interpreting and reporting 2. Uses of the Critical Incident Technique 3. Summary and conclusions.
Analysing the use of some academic writing strategies
Academic writing can be considered as a bridge that connects professional growth to a discourse community. According to Grabe and Kaplan (1996), academic writing is a type of writing that involves composing for knowledge transforming. Examples of these compositions can be: journals, notes, reports or proposals. In order to transform knowledge or as Pintos (2009) states,
“... [I]n order to construct knowledge, we should be aware of some specific characteristics which delimit the area of writing academically. Many well-known researchers and theorists have listed them (Campbell, 1990; Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998; Hunter & Morgan, 2001; Jordan, 1997; Reid, 1993). These characteristics ... are regulated by a general academic register, a formal style, a proficiency in language use, the ability to integrate information from other sources...” (p.7)
Analysing Myles’s (2002) work, Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Student Texts, we can observe she makes use of a variety of academic strategies to support her research and analysis. A great deal of in-text citations are used in Models of First Language (1L) and Second Language (2L) Writing section, para. 3 as well as she makes two omissions when quoting two different authors’ points of view as regards skilled and less-skilled writers. They can be seen in the paragraph quoted below,
The Flower and Hayes (1980, 1981) model focuses on what writers do when they compose. It examines the rhetorical problem in order to determine the potential difficulties a writer could experience during the composing process. The "problem-solving activity" is divided into two major components: the rhetorical situation (audience, topic, assignment), and the writer's own goals (involving the reader, the writer's persona, the construction of meaning, and the production of the formal text). By comparing skilled and less-skilled writers, the emphasis here is placed on "students' strategic knowledge and the ability of students to transform information . . . to meet rhetorically constrained purposes" (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996, p. 116). However, the social dimension is important too. Indeed, writing "should not be viewed solely as an individually-oriented, inner-directed cognitive process, but as much as an acquired response to the discourse conventions . . . within particular communities" (Swales, 1990, p. 4).
Myles (2002) also inserts an upper-case letter at the beginning of two block quotations. The following are the examples
[L]earners lack the necessary information in the second language or the attentional capacity to activate the appropriate second-language routine. But such an account says little about why certain linguistic forms transfer and others do not. (McLaughlin, 1988, p. 50 as cited in Cognitive Factors, para. 7)
[A]lthough we should not cripple our students' interest in writing through undue stress or grammatical correctness, the influence of second language factors on writing performance is something we have to reckon with and not pretend that concentrating on the process would automatically resolve the difficulty caused by these factors. (Yan, 1991, p. 268 as cited in Summary and Conclusion, para.2)
Various kinds of quotations are also used, direct and block ones can be mentioned as the examples above. Myles (2002) also paraphrases other authors’ words, for example in the first paragraph of her work
The ability to write well is not a naturally acquired skill; it is usually learned or culturally transmitted as a set of practices in formal instructional settings or other environments. Writing skills must be practiced and learned through experience. Writing also involves composing, which implies the ability either to tell or retell pieces of information in the form of narratives or description, or to transform information into new texts, as in expository or argumentative writing. Perhaps it is best viewed as a continuum of activities that range from the more mechanical or formal aspects of "writing down" on the one end, to the more complex act of composing on the other end (Omaggio Hadley, 1993).
The author also introduces phrases by means of appropriate reporting verbs, such as:
Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) also propose a model that suggests...
According to Ellis (1985), it is through analyzing learner errors that...
Taking the concept of "knowledge transformation" further, Wells (2000) argues that...
In addition to the use of written models, Cumming (1995) also points out the benefits of...
The reporting verbs are not overused nor repeated so as not to make it difficult the smoothness of the reading act.
All in all, the examples above can show how an academic piece of writing should be looked like as regards the use of appropriate citing sources. As Pintos (2009) defines, composing is “the ability to combine sentences into larger cohesive and coherent pieces of writing...” (p.7). It is important to take into account that when producing a piece of academic writing, we are not only using different statregies but we are also getting involved in a discourse community.
Reference
Myles, J. (2002). Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Student Texts. TESEL-EJ, 6, 2, 2002. Queen's University. Retrieved from http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESl-EJ/ej22/a1.html, April 1, 2008
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic Writing. Handout for Licenciatura en Enseñanza del Idioma Inglés. Buenos Aires: Universidad CAECE. Retrieved August 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730
“... [I]n order to construct knowledge, we should be aware of some specific characteristics which delimit the area of writing academically. Many well-known researchers and theorists have listed them (Campbell, 1990; Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998; Hunter & Morgan, 2001; Jordan, 1997; Reid, 1993). These characteristics ... are regulated by a general academic register, a formal style, a proficiency in language use, the ability to integrate information from other sources...” (p.7)
Analysing Myles’s (2002) work, Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Student Texts, we can observe she makes use of a variety of academic strategies to support her research and analysis. A great deal of in-text citations are used in Models of First Language (1L) and Second Language (2L) Writing section, para. 3 as well as she makes two omissions when quoting two different authors’ points of view as regards skilled and less-skilled writers. They can be seen in the paragraph quoted below,
The Flower and Hayes (1980, 1981) model focuses on what writers do when they compose. It examines the rhetorical problem in order to determine the potential difficulties a writer could experience during the composing process. The "problem-solving activity" is divided into two major components: the rhetorical situation (audience, topic, assignment), and the writer's own goals (involving the reader, the writer's persona, the construction of meaning, and the production of the formal text). By comparing skilled and less-skilled writers, the emphasis here is placed on "students' strategic knowledge and the ability of students to transform information . . . to meet rhetorically constrained purposes" (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996, p. 116). However, the social dimension is important too. Indeed, writing "should not be viewed solely as an individually-oriented, inner-directed cognitive process, but as much as an acquired response to the discourse conventions . . . within particular communities" (Swales, 1990, p. 4).
Myles (2002) also inserts an upper-case letter at the beginning of two block quotations. The following are the examples
[L]earners lack the necessary information in the second language or the attentional capacity to activate the appropriate second-language routine. But such an account says little about why certain linguistic forms transfer and others do not. (McLaughlin, 1988, p. 50 as cited in Cognitive Factors, para. 7)
[A]lthough we should not cripple our students' interest in writing through undue stress or grammatical correctness, the influence of second language factors on writing performance is something we have to reckon with and not pretend that concentrating on the process would automatically resolve the difficulty caused by these factors. (Yan, 1991, p. 268 as cited in Summary and Conclusion, para.2)
Various kinds of quotations are also used, direct and block ones can be mentioned as the examples above. Myles (2002) also paraphrases other authors’ words, for example in the first paragraph of her work
The ability to write well is not a naturally acquired skill; it is usually learned or culturally transmitted as a set of practices in formal instructional settings or other environments. Writing skills must be practiced and learned through experience. Writing also involves composing, which implies the ability either to tell or retell pieces of information in the form of narratives or description, or to transform information into new texts, as in expository or argumentative writing. Perhaps it is best viewed as a continuum of activities that range from the more mechanical or formal aspects of "writing down" on the one end, to the more complex act of composing on the other end (Omaggio Hadley, 1993).
The author also introduces phrases by means of appropriate reporting verbs, such as:
Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) also propose a model that suggests...
According to Ellis (1985), it is through analyzing learner errors that...
Taking the concept of "knowledge transformation" further, Wells (2000) argues that...
In addition to the use of written models, Cumming (1995) also points out the benefits of...
The reporting verbs are not overused nor repeated so as not to make it difficult the smoothness of the reading act.
All in all, the examples above can show how an academic piece of writing should be looked like as regards the use of appropriate citing sources. As Pintos (2009) defines, composing is “the ability to combine sentences into larger cohesive and coherent pieces of writing...” (p.7). It is important to take into account that when producing a piece of academic writing, we are not only using different statregies but we are also getting involved in a discourse community.
Reference
Myles, J. (2002). Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Student Texts. TESEL-EJ, 6, 2, 2002. Queen's University. Retrieved from http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESl-EJ/ej22/a1.html, April 1, 2008
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic Writing. Handout for Licenciatura en Enseñanza del Idioma Inglés. Buenos Aires: Universidad CAECE. Retrieved August 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730
jueves, 18 de febrero de 2010
The Critical Incident Technique: when human behaviours determine psychological categories
During 1940s a psychologist, John Flanagan from the American Institute for Research and the University of Pittsburgh and several collaborators designed and used a special way of collecting data. They have called it The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) which consists of a set of procedures for registering direct observations of human behaviour. Thus, the information collected makes it useful to solve specially practical problems and developing broad psychological principles. As Flanagan (1954) describes, an incident is any human activity that can be observed in such a way one is able to make inferences and predict about the person performing the act. It is so called critical because it occurs in a situation where the purpose of the act is very clear to the observer and its consequences leave little doubts as regards its effects.
The Critical Incident Technique was firstly used to analyse specific reasons for failure in learning to fly reported for pilot candidates eliminted during training in the US Army Air Forces in 1941. Later, its use extended to manufacturer companies where foremen observed and registered activities performed by the production operators. So, later they could formulate requirements to be achieved to recruit personnel. The American psychologist suggests that objectivity should be one of the main features to guarantee the information -gathered by the application of this technique, be relevant enough for potential uses. By objectivity Flanagan (1954) means to get the same report by a number of independent observers who, in order to provide specific and detailed descriptions, will have to limit their observation to the general aim.
As Flanagan (1954) explained, determination of the general aim of the activity -one of the five steps in the CIT (Critical Incident Technique), should be a brief statement made by an authority in the field. Once the fundamental orientation has been marked, the development of plans and specifications should be traced. They will be precise instructions given to the observers. These instructions as well as the group to be studied need to be as specific as possible. These aspects will facilitate greatly the third step in the procedure since the data collection phase will be simplified.
There are four procedures to collect data. The first one is interview, a specilist in a field explains to the observers precisely what data are desired. The specialist is told what the purpose of the interview is, why he/she has been selected and must be told that his/her identity will not be revealed. Questions must be as precise and clear as possible so as not to lead to misinterpretations. Other ways to collect data are: group interviews, questionnaries and record forms. The first two ones differ in the number of interviewees, questionnaries are performed when the group becomes large.
Analysis of the data is the fourth step involved in the CIT. Its purpose is to summarize and describe the information in an efficient manner so that it can be used for various practical purposes. The last step is interpretation and reporting. The author suggests that reporting facts about behaviour is better than the collection of interpretations, ratings and opinions based on general impressions. He also adds that reporting should be limited to those behaviours which make an important contribution to the activity.
This technique can be applied to measure typical performance. An individual’s performance can be objectively evaluated and recorded if an observational check list includes all of the important behaviours for the activity. It can also be useful to measure proficiency. Training field, some way, the first application of the technique, can be greatly benefited. Indeed, from the very beginning, many of the applications in this field were carried out for the military in special situations and for specific types of maintenance mechanics. Similarly, to select and classify applicants or employees, CIT is appropriate. They are given a short time to study the job then a wide variety of selection procedures are administered to gather some data later.
As far as operating procedures are concerned, the Cirtical Incident Technique can be valuable to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of operations where detailed factual data on successes and failures are analyzed systematically. Even equipment design may be improved if this technique is used. Since the collection of large numbers of critical incidents representative of operating experience provides a sound basis for modifying existing equipment and designing new models. To go further in exploring different fields for the application of Flanagan’s (1954) technique, motivation and leadership can also be studied. Its main goal here is to gather factual data regarding specific actions involving decisions and choices. Counseling and psychotherapy are other examples of the vast use of this interesting and worthy procedure.
As Flanagan (1954) states “the critical incident technique, rather than collecting opinions, hunches, and estimates, obtains a record of specific behaviours from those in the best positions to make the necessary observations and evaluations” (p. 31). Taking into account the author’s words mentioned above, this technique can be also applied to the educational field. It can be a useful tool for teachers to reflect upon their work. It would help them to analyse different situations encountered and learn from them so as to correct some mistakes or just to think over certain decisions probably wrongly made.
To conclude, the Critical Incident Technique as an interesting pshycological tool to determine activity requirements with objectivity has made important contributions to different fields. Its applications and results provide the basis for making inferences in terms of aptitudes and training, characteristics that are necessary to find in human behaviours in order to take advantage of their proficiency in solving practical problems.
Reference
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin,
51-4. Retrieved January 2008, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
The Critical Incident Technique was firstly used to analyse specific reasons for failure in learning to fly reported for pilot candidates eliminted during training in the US Army Air Forces in 1941. Later, its use extended to manufacturer companies where foremen observed and registered activities performed by the production operators. So, later they could formulate requirements to be achieved to recruit personnel. The American psychologist suggests that objectivity should be one of the main features to guarantee the information -gathered by the application of this technique, be relevant enough for potential uses. By objectivity Flanagan (1954) means to get the same report by a number of independent observers who, in order to provide specific and detailed descriptions, will have to limit their observation to the general aim.
As Flanagan (1954) explained, determination of the general aim of the activity -one of the five steps in the CIT (Critical Incident Technique), should be a brief statement made by an authority in the field. Once the fundamental orientation has been marked, the development of plans and specifications should be traced. They will be precise instructions given to the observers. These instructions as well as the group to be studied need to be as specific as possible. These aspects will facilitate greatly the third step in the procedure since the data collection phase will be simplified.
There are four procedures to collect data. The first one is interview, a specilist in a field explains to the observers precisely what data are desired. The specialist is told what the purpose of the interview is, why he/she has been selected and must be told that his/her identity will not be revealed. Questions must be as precise and clear as possible so as not to lead to misinterpretations. Other ways to collect data are: group interviews, questionnaries and record forms. The first two ones differ in the number of interviewees, questionnaries are performed when the group becomes large.
Analysis of the data is the fourth step involved in the CIT. Its purpose is to summarize and describe the information in an efficient manner so that it can be used for various practical purposes. The last step is interpretation and reporting. The author suggests that reporting facts about behaviour is better than the collection of interpretations, ratings and opinions based on general impressions. He also adds that reporting should be limited to those behaviours which make an important contribution to the activity.
This technique can be applied to measure typical performance. An individual’s performance can be objectively evaluated and recorded if an observational check list includes all of the important behaviours for the activity. It can also be useful to measure proficiency. Training field, some way, the first application of the technique, can be greatly benefited. Indeed, from the very beginning, many of the applications in this field were carried out for the military in special situations and for specific types of maintenance mechanics. Similarly, to select and classify applicants or employees, CIT is appropriate. They are given a short time to study the job then a wide variety of selection procedures are administered to gather some data later.
As far as operating procedures are concerned, the Cirtical Incident Technique can be valuable to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of operations where detailed factual data on successes and failures are analyzed systematically. Even equipment design may be improved if this technique is used. Since the collection of large numbers of critical incidents representative of operating experience provides a sound basis for modifying existing equipment and designing new models. To go further in exploring different fields for the application of Flanagan’s (1954) technique, motivation and leadership can also be studied. Its main goal here is to gather factual data regarding specific actions involving decisions and choices. Counseling and psychotherapy are other examples of the vast use of this interesting and worthy procedure.
As Flanagan (1954) states “the critical incident technique, rather than collecting opinions, hunches, and estimates, obtains a record of specific behaviours from those in the best positions to make the necessary observations and evaluations” (p. 31). Taking into account the author’s words mentioned above, this technique can be also applied to the educational field. It can be a useful tool for teachers to reflect upon their work. It would help them to analyse different situations encountered and learn from them so as to correct some mistakes or just to think over certain decisions probably wrongly made.
To conclude, the Critical Incident Technique as an interesting pshycological tool to determine activity requirements with objectivity has made important contributions to different fields. Its applications and results provide the basis for making inferences in terms of aptitudes and training, characteristics that are necessary to find in human behaviours in order to take advantage of their proficiency in solving practical problems.
Reference
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin,
51-4. Retrieved January 2008, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
martes, 16 de febrero de 2010
Teachers'professional development and its effect on their students' academic level
Howley and Howley (2005) point out that it is commonly thought by those who decide on new policies that professional development involves improvement in the quality of teaching in the classrooms which consequently would end in students’ higher academic results. Unfortunately, these linkages have proved to be rarely true by “very limited empirical evidence” (Howley & Howley, 2005, p. 1). The authors describe different cases where teachers show their concern to better their work. They expose several examples or alternatives for professional developments carried out by teachers from different schools.
Howley and Howley (2005), support their ideas with clear examples of approaches used to set standards and assess teachers' performance,
Grounded in management approaches such as Total Quality Management, some improvement strategies involve educators in the establishement of standards and benchmarks followed by an ongoing process of assessment and clasrroom-level reform. The Malcolm Baldrige program is perhaps the best-known approach of this type...(Howley & Howley, 2005, para. 8)
In the paragraph quoted above the reader can see that there are some theories that back up teachers’ practices for professional development.
Throughout the whole article the authors develop the topic extensively, making good use of writing strategies to help the readers understand the content. The use of linking words or cohesive markers are one example. When referring to the studies done to know teachers’ performance after having participated in professional development, connectors such as: in addition or furthermore are used to add information. The linking word: however is used in the following paragraph to show the opposite view of what they have mentioned previously. To show opposition in another paragraph, they use phrases such as: even though, though, despite.
Linking words like: first, second are used to show not a chronology of events but the order of explanations for two organizational dynamics existing in rural places, “professional isolation and culturally instilled reluctance to criticize professional behaviors” (Howley, A. and Howley, C. B., 2005, p. 4). To explain causes and consequences in their arguments, the authors make use of cohesive markers such as: because, because of, as a result.
Howley and Howley, (2005) comment not only on the presuppositions and real evidences existing about the relation and connection between teachers’ professional development and students’ achievement in the urban schools. But also they notice the difficulties teachers in rural areas find to enrich their jobs. They account for some basis rural teachers encounter in their attempts to improve the level of their students’ academic results.
In conclusion, the idea sustained by policymakers concerning better professional development that results in higher students' academic level has been proved not to be so by evidences gathered by Howley and Howley (2005). Their writing strategies used to develop the topic are varied and appropriate for the audience they address. This work not only deals with an interesting issue of the teaching profession but also serves as an excellent reading resource to improve academic writing.
Reference
Howley, A., & Howley, C. B. (2005). High-quality teaching: Providing for
rural teachers' professional development. The Rural Educator. Retrieved
October 2007, from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4126/is_200501/ai_n13591361
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Buenos Aires: Universidad CAECE. Retrieved August 2009 from, http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730
Howley and Howley (2005), support their ideas with clear examples of approaches used to set standards and assess teachers' performance,
Grounded in management approaches such as Total Quality Management, some improvement strategies involve educators in the establishement of standards and benchmarks followed by an ongoing process of assessment and clasrroom-level reform. The Malcolm Baldrige program is perhaps the best-known approach of this type...(Howley & Howley, 2005, para. 8)
In the paragraph quoted above the reader can see that there are some theories that back up teachers’ practices for professional development.
Throughout the whole article the authors develop the topic extensively, making good use of writing strategies to help the readers understand the content. The use of linking words or cohesive markers are one example. When referring to the studies done to know teachers’ performance after having participated in professional development, connectors such as: in addition or furthermore are used to add information. The linking word: however is used in the following paragraph to show the opposite view of what they have mentioned previously. To show opposition in another paragraph, they use phrases such as: even though, though, despite.
Linking words like: first, second are used to show not a chronology of events but the order of explanations for two organizational dynamics existing in rural places, “professional isolation and culturally instilled reluctance to criticize professional behaviors” (Howley, A. and Howley, C. B., 2005, p. 4). To explain causes and consequences in their arguments, the authors make use of cohesive markers such as: because, because of, as a result.
Howley and Howley, (2005) comment not only on the presuppositions and real evidences existing about the relation and connection between teachers’ professional development and students’ achievement in the urban schools. But also they notice the difficulties teachers in rural areas find to enrich their jobs. They account for some basis rural teachers encounter in their attempts to improve the level of their students’ academic results.
In conclusion, the idea sustained by policymakers concerning better professional development that results in higher students' academic level has been proved not to be so by evidences gathered by Howley and Howley (2005). Their writing strategies used to develop the topic are varied and appropriate for the audience they address. This work not only deals with an interesting issue of the teaching profession but also serves as an excellent reading resource to improve academic writing.
Reference
Howley, A., & Howley, C. B. (2005). High-quality teaching: Providing for
rural teachers' professional development. The Rural Educator. Retrieved
October 2007, from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4126/is_200501/ai_n13591361
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Buenos Aires: Universidad CAECE. Retrieved August 2009 from, http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730
Integrating reading and writing skills in every day classroom activities
Different authors agreed with the idea that reading and writing skills are closely related. Each one of them can be seen as the source of the other. Pintos (2009) claims that “appropriate input for acquisition of writing skills is achieved through reading because reading can provide primary models to start writing” (p.32).
According to Stotsky (1983), better readers are highly likely to produce more syntactically mature writing than those readers who can be considered poorer (as cited in Eisterhold,1990, p. 88) Consequently, Second Language teachers should take into account that an effective system in the academic discourse community is built by the integration of the reading skill into the writing one. Bloor (1985) proposes four approaches to make it possible,
1. Psychological approach, in which students practise the process involved in reading.
2. Linguistic approach, where students’s attention is drawn to the words and sentences of a given text.
3. Content-oriented approach, whose aim is to give students a specific purpose of reading. They can be presented several types of texts in order to produce different pieces of writing.
4. Pedagogically-oriented approach, where students are motivated to reading self-access materials which they can use at their own pace. (Bloor, 1985; as cited in Jordan, 1997).
Examples of every day classroom activities that can fit into the approaches mentioned above can be for instance: match the words with their meaning; look for the opposites of adjectives in a text; read the following paragraph then match the words in italics with their explanations or synonyms below, if teachers’ aim is to develop practising the process involved in reading. However, if the focus is on students’ attention on words and sentences of a certain text, they should be asked to solve activities such as: match the beginnings of the sentences in column A with their endings in column B; put the words in the right order to make sentences; complete the key words in certain definitions.
On the other hand, if the objective is to expect students to read a specific text with further purpose to be accomplished, they should be given tasks as the ones that follow: read the X Hotel brochure and write an e-mail to book a single room for 3 nights, ask if you can pay with credit card. Read the extract from the newspaper about this famous teenager pop singer. Write 5 questions you would like to ask them if you were an interviewer. Look at this advertisement, which adjectives would you add to make it more persuasive?
To promote or stimulate extensive reading, students could be given different options to choose to work on their own and share with their classmates and teachers. Some assignments that could fulfil this purpose could be, for instance: students can browse on the Internet visiting certain web pages, reading articles about specific topics and make a brief comment or report about them. They can also be given some short stories so that they choose one to read and then write the plot or prepare a strips of comics with the most important scenes of the story.
In conclusion, as Ferris and Hedgcock (1998) state, if we engage our students to develop their reading skill through the performance of varied activities, they will definetely improve their writing skill. Thus the relationship between reading and writing will greatly contribute to build an effective academic discourse community.
References
Eisterhold, J. C. (1990). “Reading-writing connections: Toward a description
for second language learners.” In Kroll, B. (Ed) (1990). Second language
writing: Research insights for the classroom. (pp. 88-102). New York, NY:
Cambridge University Press.
Ferris, D. and Hedgcock, J. S. (1998). Teaching ESL composition: Purpose,
process, and practice. London, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes: A guide and resource
book for teachers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Universidad CAECE. Retrieved August 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730
According to Stotsky (1983), better readers are highly likely to produce more syntactically mature writing than those readers who can be considered poorer (as cited in Eisterhold,1990, p. 88) Consequently, Second Language teachers should take into account that an effective system in the academic discourse community is built by the integration of the reading skill into the writing one. Bloor (1985) proposes four approaches to make it possible,
1. Psychological approach, in which students practise the process involved in reading.
2. Linguistic approach, where students’s attention is drawn to the words and sentences of a given text.
3. Content-oriented approach, whose aim is to give students a specific purpose of reading. They can be presented several types of texts in order to produce different pieces of writing.
4. Pedagogically-oriented approach, where students are motivated to reading self-access materials which they can use at their own pace. (Bloor, 1985; as cited in Jordan, 1997).
Examples of every day classroom activities that can fit into the approaches mentioned above can be for instance: match the words with their meaning; look for the opposites of adjectives in a text; read the following paragraph then match the words in italics with their explanations or synonyms below, if teachers’ aim is to develop practising the process involved in reading. However, if the focus is on students’ attention on words and sentences of a certain text, they should be asked to solve activities such as: match the beginnings of the sentences in column A with their endings in column B; put the words in the right order to make sentences; complete the key words in certain definitions.
On the other hand, if the objective is to expect students to read a specific text with further purpose to be accomplished, they should be given tasks as the ones that follow: read the X Hotel brochure and write an e-mail to book a single room for 3 nights, ask if you can pay with credit card. Read the extract from the newspaper about this famous teenager pop singer. Write 5 questions you would like to ask them if you were an interviewer. Look at this advertisement, which adjectives would you add to make it more persuasive?
To promote or stimulate extensive reading, students could be given different options to choose to work on their own and share with their classmates and teachers. Some assignments that could fulfil this purpose could be, for instance: students can browse on the Internet visiting certain web pages, reading articles about specific topics and make a brief comment or report about them. They can also be given some short stories so that they choose one to read and then write the plot or prepare a strips of comics with the most important scenes of the story.
In conclusion, as Ferris and Hedgcock (1998) state, if we engage our students to develop their reading skill through the performance of varied activities, they will definetely improve their writing skill. Thus the relationship between reading and writing will greatly contribute to build an effective academic discourse community.
References
Eisterhold, J. C. (1990). “Reading-writing connections: Toward a description
for second language learners.” In Kroll, B. (Ed) (1990). Second language
writing: Research insights for the classroom. (pp. 88-102). New York, NY:
Cambridge University Press.
Ferris, D. and Hedgcock, J. S. (1998). Teaching ESL composition: Purpose,
process, and practice. London, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes: A guide and resource
book for teachers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Universidad CAECE. Retrieved August 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730
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